The region now known as Xinjiang has a long and complex history marked by shifting borders, diverse populations, and evolving political control. The name ‘Xinjiang,’ meaning ‘New Frontier’ in Chinese, did not exist until the Qing Dynasty officially integrated the region in the 18th century. Before this, the area was known by various names and was inhabited by a mixture of Turkic, Mongol, and Indo-European peoples. Understanding when Xinjiang became ‘Xinjiang’ involves exploring centuries of cultural exchanges, conquests, and state formation across Central Asia. This topic delves into the historical events leading to Xinjiang’s modern identity under Chinese rule and how it came to be recognized as such.
Pre-Imperial Periods: The Ancient Silk Road and Early Kingdoms
Before being called Xinjiang, the region was a vibrant center of cultural and economic activity due to its location on the Silk Road. Various ancient states and kingdoms rose and fell here, including:
- The Yuezhi and the Saka (Scythians), Indo-European nomads
- The Xiongnu Confederation
- The Kingdom of Khotan
- The Kushan Empire
- The Gaochang and Karasahr kingdoms
These kingdoms thrived from around the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE, serving as hubs for trade, Buddhism, and cross-cultural interaction. The region was not politically unified but rather made up of various city-states and tribal entities.
The Tang Dynasty and Early Chinese Influence
Chinese influence in the region began during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), when the imperial court established the Protectorate General to Pacify the West (Anxi Duhufu) in the mid-7th century. This administrative body allowed China to exercise military and political control over the Tarim Basin for several decades. However, this influence waned as Tang authority declined and Tibetan and Turkic powers filled the vacuum.
Islamic Rule and the Rise of the Uyghurs
After the fall of Tang influence, the region saw the spread of Islam, particularly with the rise of the Kara-Khanid Khanate in the 10th century. Uyghur populations, who had migrated into the area following the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia, gradually adopted Islam over the next few centuries.
By the 14th century, much of the region was ruled by various Turkic Muslim dynasties such as the Chagatai Khanate, and later the Yarkent Khanate. During this time, the region was often referred to as ‘Altishahr’ (meaning ‘Six Cities’ in reference to key towns in the Tarim Basin), and ‘Moghulistan’ (Land of the Mongols) for the eastern parts.
The Qing Conquest and the Birth of ‘Xinjiang’
The defining moment for the term Xinjiang came in the 18th century. The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), led by the Manchus, launched military campaigns to extend its control westward. In the 1750s, after a series of battles against the Dzungar Khanate a powerful Mongol state in the region the Qing defeated and nearly exterminated the Dzungars. Subsequently, they turned their attention to the Tarim Basin, defeating local Muslim rulers and absorbing the territory.
Formal Naming of Xinjiang
In 1884, during the late Qing period, the imperial government officially established the region as a Chinese province and gave it the name ‘Xinjiang,’ literally meaning New Frontier. This marked the first time the region was incorporated into China as a formal province. The name was both a symbol of Qing victory and a declaration of sovereignty over the diverse and historically independent area.
Republic of China Era and Further Integration
Following the fall of the Qing in 1912, Xinjiang came under the control of various warlords who often ruled with little direct input from the central Republic of China (ROC) government. However, the ROC continued to treat Xinjiang as an official province. During this time, local uprisings and ethnic tensions were common, including several short-lived efforts by Turkic Muslims to establish independent states, such as the First East Turkestan Republic in 1933 and the Second East Turkestan Republic in 1944.
The People’s Republic of China and Modern Xinjiang
In 1949, after the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, the People’s Liberation Army entered Xinjiang, and the region was brought under the control of the newly founded People’s Republic of China (PRC). In 1955, the PRC renamed the province the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), acknowledging the ethnic identity of the Uyghur population, although in practice, control remained strongly centralized.
Ethnic Diversity and Autonomy in Name
Today, Xinjiang is officially designated as an autonomous region, home to many ethnic groups including Uyghurs, Han Chinese, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and others. Despite its designation, the autonomy is limited, and the region has been the focus of international attention due to reports of human rights issues and cultural suppression, especially against Uyghur Muslims.
Why ‘Xinjiang’ Still Matters
The name ‘Xinjiang’ is more than just a geographical label it represents centuries of interaction between empires, cultures, and ideologies. The formal naming by the Qing Dynasty in 1884 marked a shift from fragmented rule to a centrally administered territory under the Chinese empire. However, even before that date, the area that would become Xinjiang played a critical role in the history of Central Asia.
Modern Controversies
There is ongoing debate, particularly among Uyghur activists and scholars, about the name Xinjiang itself. Critics argue that the term reflects a colonial perspective, reinforcing the idea of the region as a conquered land rather than one with its own identity. Some prefer the historical term East Turkestan, which emphasizes the Turkic and Islamic heritage of the area. This naming debate continues to fuel political and cultural discussions today.
So, when did Xinjiang become Xinjiang? Officially, the region received its name in 1884 when the Qing Dynasty incorporated it as a province. Yet, its identity had been shaped over millennia by waves of migration, empire-building, and religious transformation. The transformation of the region into what we now call Xinjiang was a gradual process, influenced by both internal dynamics and external conquests. Understanding the timeline of Xinjiang’s development is essential to grasping the complexities of its present-day challenges and its historical significance in the broader story of Asia.