In the early decades of the 20th century, the remote and ethnically diverse region of Sinkiang (now spelled Xinjiang), located in the far northwest of China, became the focus of geopolitical and ideological struggles. While the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) initially viewed the region as a potential stronghold for revolutionary expansion, their efforts were met with significant resistance. The phrase ‘Red failure in Sinkiang’ refers to the inability of the CCP to gain lasting influence in the area during the 1930s and 1940s, especially before the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. This failure resulted from a mixture of political, ethnic, military, and international challenges that complicated the communist mission in Sinkiang.
Historical Background of Sinkiang
Sinkiang has long been a culturally rich and strategically important region. Home to Turkic Muslim groups, primarily the Uyghurs, as well as Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, and Han Chinese, it has historically been a borderland between Chinese empires and Central Asian powers. In the early 20th century, Sinkiang was under the loose control of regional warlords, with only nominal allegiance to the central Chinese government. Amidst this chaotic environment, both the Kuomintang (KMT) and CCP sought influence in the region.
The Strategic Value of Sinkiang
Sinkiang’s importance stemmed from multiple factors:
- Its vast landmass and borders with the Soviet Union, India, and several Central Asian republics.
- Its natural resources, including oil, minerals, and agricultural potential.
- Its symbolic value in asserting Chinese territorial integrity during times of national fragmentation.
Given these assets, both the Soviet Union and Chinese factions nationalist and communist desired control over the region. However, Sinkiang’s isolation and tribal divisions made any central authority difficult to enforce.
Early Communist Inroads into Sinkiang
During the 1930s, the CCP attempted to gain a foothold in Sinkiang. Some of their efforts aligned with Soviet interests, as Moscow supported regional leaders like Sheng Shicai, a warlord who temporarily declared allegiance to communism. Sheng invited Soviet advisors, adopted socialist rhetoric, and even purged right-wing elements. For a brief period, it appeared the Red influence was growing. However, this experiment was short-lived.
Sheng Shicai’s Shift in Allegiance
Sheng Shicai’s cooperation with the Soviets and the CCP was primarily opportunistic. Once World War II escalated and relations between the Soviets and China changed, Sheng turned against the communists. He expelled Soviet advisors, suppressed pro-communist factions, and eventually aligned himself with the KMT. This marked a significant turning point and underscored the instability of Red influence in Sinkiang.
Key Reasons for the Red Failure
1. Ethnic and Cultural Barriers
The majority of Sinkiang’s population did not share the CCP’s ideology or ethnic background. The CCP, dominated by Han Chinese, struggled to connect with the Turkic-speaking, Muslim population of the region. The Uyghurs, in particular, were skeptical of any form of Chinese rule nationalist or communist. Attempts to impose Marxist-Leninist ideology clashed with Islamic traditions and local tribal structures.
2. Geographical Isolation
Sinkiang was physically remote from CCP strongholds in eastern China. Rugged terrain, deserts, and poor transportation infrastructure made it difficult to send troops, supplies, or propaganda into the area. This isolation hampered any sustained communist effort to organize local cells or exert political control, especially during the Chinese Civil War.
3. Soviet Interference and Shifting Alliances
Although the USSR initially aided Red efforts in Sinkiang, their long-term commitment was inconsistent. The Soviets often prioritized their strategic interests over communist ideology. When alliances shifted such as during World War II so did their support. Moscow even made secret agreements with the KMT to stabilize the region, undermining communist insurgents and activists in the process.
4. Warlordism and Local Resistance
Sinkiang was governed by semi-independent warlords who maintained their own armies and had no interest in outside interference. These warlords, such as Sheng Shicai and later the Ili National Army, resisted any centralized control, whether from the KMT or CCP. Local resistance to communism also came from Islamic leaders who feared suppression of their religious freedom.
5. Weak Organizational Presence
Compared to other regions in China, the CCP had a weak organizational structure in Sinkiang during the 1930s and 1940s. Few Red Army units operated there, and the region lacked a strong underground communist network. This vacuum allowed other factions, including KMT loyalists and separatist movements, to dominate the political landscape.
Attempts at Revolution in the Ili Region
One notable communist-affiliated movement occurred in the Ili region of northern Sinkiang. In 1944, the Second East Turkestan Republic (ETR) was established with Soviet backing. Though it claimed to promote autonomy and equality, it had tacit communist support. However, this republic was limited in scope and lasted only a few years. By 1949, it was peacefully absorbed into the newly established People’s Republic of China, but not without controversy.
The Turning Point: 1949 and Communist Victory
Despite the earlier failures, the CCP eventually took control of Sinkiang in 1949. As the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) marched westward, local warlords either surrendered or were persuaded to cooperate. The Red failure in Sinkiang was thus largely reversed, but only after the national victory in the Chinese Civil War. This transition marked a new era of centralized communist control, but it did not erase the memory of earlier difficulties and resistance.
Long-Term Consequences
The CCP’s early failure in Sinkiang had long-term consequences:
- It led to increased suspicion and surveillance of ethnic minorities in the region.
- It reinforced the CCP’s belief in the necessity of strong military and political control in frontier regions.
- It exposed the limits of ideology in winning over diverse populations without genuine cultural and political inclusion.
Even today, the legacy of failed early efforts contributes to tensions in the region, as the government balances economic development with strict security policies.
The Red failure in Sinkiang was not due to a single cause, but rather a convergence of ethnic tensions, geographic challenges, ideological mismatch, and shifting political alliances. Although the CCP eventually gained control of the region, their early setbacks underscore the complexity of governing such a diverse and strategic area. Understanding this period is essential to grasp the roots of modern issues in Xinjiang and the evolution of Chinese frontier policy.